Linking Human Capital to Higher Income: A Comparative Evaluation of Public and Private Agricultural Extension for Small-Scale Maize Farmers’ Livelihoods

Abstract

This study conducts a comparative evaluation of how Public and Private agricultural extension services link human capital development to higher maize farm income among small-scale farmers in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. Data was collected from 270 maize farmers across two districts i.e. District Charsadda and Dir Upper. Analysis involved descriptive statistics, correlations, and multiple linear regressions. Descriptive results showed income and production disparities between districts. Correlation analysis revealed strong links between farm size, production, and income, and showed that private extension human capital was more closely associated with these physical production factors than public extension human capital. Farmer perceptions favored public extension for “Training and skills” Weighted Score (W.S: 710) but private extension for “Farming knowledge” (W.S: 647). The final regression model, controlling for age, education, experience, and farm area, was highly significant (F:121.195***) and explained 73.4% of income variation. "Maize area" was the strongest predictor (B: 97811.75***). Critically, both “Public Extension Human Capital” (B: 2220.996***) and “Private Extension Human Capital” (B: 3788.483***) were significant positive predictors. The study concludes that while both systems add value, private extension “human capital” has a slightly stronger marginal association with higher maize income in the study area, underscoring the need for synergistic policy, strengthening the practical skill-focus of public extension while guiding private providers to pivot from pure input sales to profitability-based farm management services, with investment in continuous training and resource allocation for both sectors.